Definition: As explained in Strategy Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities, a learning disability can effect a person's life both in and out of the classroom. Students with LD are often caught in a vicious spiral of school failure. Their learning difficulties lead to slower development of academic skills and abilities, which in turn impedes new learning (Stanovich, 1986). As a result of the repeated cycle of failure, they fall farther and farther behind" (Reid, Lienemann, 2006). There have been a number of established definitions for LD which are listed below and not one definition commonly accepted or preferred over another (Reid, Lienemann, 2006). These definitions can be found on page 3 in Strategy Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities by Reid and Lienemann.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1977)
The term "specific learning disability" means those children who have a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or
written, which disorder may manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write,
spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual
handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term
does not include a learning problem which is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor
handicaps, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or
economic disadvantage.
Association for Children with Learning Disabilities (1986)
Specific Learning Disabilities is a chronic condition of presumed neurological origin which
selectively interferes with the development, integrations, and/or demonstration of verbal and/or non-
verbal abilities. Specific Learning Disabilities exists as a distinct handicapping condition and varies
in its manifestations and in degree of severity. Throughout life, the condition can affect self-esteem,
education, vocation, socialization, and/or daily living activities.
Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities (1987)
Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous groups of disorders manifested
by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
reasoning, mathematical abilities, or social skills. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and
presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may
occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g., cultural differences, insufficient or
inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors), and especially attention-deficit disorder, all of which
may cause learning problems, a learning disability is not the direct result of those conditions or
influences.
National Joint Council on Learning Disabilities (1997)
Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogenous group of disorders manifested by
significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning,
or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, are presumed to be due to
central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory
behaviors, social perceptions, and social interactions may exist with learning disabilities but do not
by themselves constitute a learning disability. Although a learning disability may occur
concomitantly with other disabilities (for example sensory impairment, mental retardation, or serious
emotional disturbance) or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences or
insufficient/inappropriate instruction), it would not be a result of those conditions or influences.
Best Practices: As explained in Strategy Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities, it is important to use interventions that covery a number of areas when working with students with LD. In other words, it is important to focus on improving academics, self-esteem, transition, and vocation (Reid, Lienemann, 2006). There are two approaches explained in Strategy Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities that have proven to be successful when working with students with learning disabilities. First is behaviorism which was developed by B.F. Skinner. As explained, "Behaviorists stressed direct observation and ongoing collection of objective information. Learning was viewed as a hierarchical process in which a child must master skills in a prescribed order. In this approach academic tasks were broken down into their component parts, and each part was taught in sequence. The application to LD lay in the notion that academic problems would be best attacked by changes in the instructional environment. From the behaviorist perspective, a highly structured instructional environment that directly addressed the problem area was necessary for academic progress" (Reid, Lienemann, 2006, 5-6). The second approach is the cognitive approach. As explained, "The cognitive perspective focuses on the role of the individual in the learning process (Mercer, 1997). From this perspective, the key is the relation between demands of the learning environment (e.g., the task, instructional materials) and how the learner processes information" (Reid, Lienemann, 2006, 6).
Emotional and Behavior Disorders (EBD)
Definition: As explained in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), EBD is, "...a condition exhibited one ore more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance:
-An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors
-An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers
-Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances
-A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
-A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school factors"
[Code of Federal Regulations, Title 34, Section 300.7(c)94)(i)]
As defined by the IDEA, emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia but does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determiend taht they have an emotional disturbance [Code of Federal Regulation, Title 34, Section 300.7(c)(4)(ii)]
Best Practices: The most effective strategies to use with a student who has EBD involve focussing on changing the behavior of the students in order to discourage the unwanted behavior. It is best to encourage desired behavior and sometimes it is a good idea to reward good behavior. Below is an outline for a strategy to use with students who have EBD:
1. Identify the behavior that needs to be changed.2. Determine a behavioral goals- both short term and long term- for the student. Goals should be
specific and attainable. Also create a reward system that works hand in hand with the goals.
3. Observe behavior
4. Reevaluate the plan. Ask yourself if the behavior has been occurring less frequently.
5. Modify behavior plan if necessary.
It is also a good idea to use a behavior modification chart in order to monitor student progress.
Mild Cognitive Disabilities
Definition: As explained, "Defining cognitive disability is not easy, and definitions of cognitive disability are usually broad. Persons with cognitive disabilities may have difficulty with various types of mental tasks...Many cognitive disabilities have a base in physiological or biological processes within the individual, such as a genetic disorder or a traumatic brain injury. Other cognitive disabilities may be based in the chemistry or structure of the person's brain. Persons with more profound cognitive disabilities often need assistance with aspects of daily living. Persons with minor learning disabilities might be able to function adequately despite their disability, maybe to the point where their disability is never diagnosed or noticed. Mild Cognitive Disabilities can include Down Syndrome, Traumatic Brain Injury, Autism, Dementia, Dyslexia, Attention Deficit Disorder, and Dyscalculia."
Best Practices: Due to the fact that there are a number of diagnoses that can be categorized as Mild Cognitive Disabilities, there are numerous practices that can be used when working with students with Mild Cognitive Disabilities. However, many students with Mild Cognitive Disabilities "lack effective strategies for an academic task" (Reid, Leinemann, 2006) and must be taught effective strategies. As explained in Strategy Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities, "The most effective strategies are those that incorporate most of the following elements:
-Explicit explanations, elaborations, and/or plants to direct task performance.
-Verbal modeling, questioning, and demonstration by teachers.
-Students cued, reminded, and/or taught to use strategies, or procedures.
-Step-by-step prompts or multiprocess instructions.
-Teacher-student dialogue.
-Questioning by the teacher.
-Assistance provided only when necessary" (Reid, Leinemann, 2006, 11).
Definition: As explained, "Defining cognitive disability is not easy, and definitions of cognitive disability are usually broad. Persons with cognitive disabilities may have difficulty with various types of mental tasks...Many cognitive disabilities have a base in physiological or biological processes within the individual, such as a genetic disorder or a traumatic brain injury. Other cognitive disabilities may be based in the chemistry or structure of the person's brain. Persons with more profound cognitive disabilities often need assistance with aspects of daily living. Persons with minor learning disabilities might be able to function adequately despite their disability, maybe to the point where their disability is never diagnosed or noticed. Mild Cognitive Disabilities can include Down Syndrome, Traumatic Brain Injury, Autism, Dementia, Dyslexia, Attention Deficit Disorder, and Dyscalculia."
Best Practices: Due to the fact that there are a number of diagnoses that can be categorized as Mild Cognitive Disabilities, there are numerous practices that can be used when working with students with Mild Cognitive Disabilities. However, many students with Mild Cognitive Disabilities "lack effective strategies for an academic task" (Reid, Leinemann, 2006) and must be taught effective strategies. As explained in Strategy Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities, "The most effective strategies are those that incorporate most of the following elements:
-Explicit explanations, elaborations, and/or plants to direct task performance.
-Verbal modeling, questioning, and demonstration by teachers.
-Students cued, reminded, and/or taught to use strategies, or procedures.
-Step-by-step prompts or multiprocess instructions.
-Teacher-student dialogue.
-Questioning by the teacher.
-Assistance provided only when necessary" (Reid, Leinemann, 2006, 11).
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